Marriage vs Living Together Essay Example for Free

Marriage vs Living Together Essay Marriage vs Living Together Marriage is the legal union of a man and woman as husband and wife. It is also defined as the union between two people that are recognized by cultural or religious tradition. Older generations would feel that living together was disgraceful. The only way that living together was seen as acceptable was to be married. There are several differences between being married and living together such as the status in the government, status in the religious community, and status in each others eyes and each others families eyes. Television writers and producers are slowly making pop culture more diverse, but that does not mean every non-white character on television represents a step forward. Some programs seem not to do anything but pump racial stereotypes into the public eye. From geeky and pathetic Asian characters to a biracial genie who is literally an object in a white lady’s house. Another example would be from the show called , â€Å"Rob Schneider†, This new comedy is about Rob Schneider’s character attempting to connect with his wife’s large Mexican family, most of whom do not like him. It seems as though he’s supposed to be a sort of Archie Bunker character who makes awful stereotypical jokes and then is promptly dismissed by, you know, reality, but in this world the stereotypes seem to be true – the members of Maggie’s family are almost entirely defined by their Mexican-ness, right down to the mute, diminutive grandmother with a shrine to Jesus in her bedroom. We’re all for more Latino characters in primetime, but this is a pretty horrifying way to do It. (Victoria Mcnally, mar. , 2012) Children movies, television shows, and commercials are not immune to the typical racial stereotyping. In our increasingly ever-changing society, children are deeply drawn into television viewing and their consumption of television programming varies by ethnicity. Ethnic portrayal in children’s advertising is an important public policy and self-regulatory topic that may influence children’s self-perception and brand perception. Another show that promotes stereotypical behavior in television programing would be the Glee Club, that s essentially a show about the performing arts and the arts have always had an association (earned or perceived) as being gay friendly. If a guy tells someone that they are a dancer, they will assume he is gay. Glee stereotypically has gay characters. In conclusion, even commercials such as tide have shown racial stereotypical antidotes in them for example have you seen the latest Tide commercial where a â€Å"sassy black woman† is sitting on a bench getting very annoyed with being told she cannot wear white jeans after Labor Day. She actually gets up, starts with the neck swivel and the hand, and says she will do whatever she wants because Tide will keep her jeans white, â€Å"Not white-ish, not eggshell, and not ecru, whatever that is. † But pure white. Just another way of showing that no matter what genre of television programming, stereotyping is a part of it. Mostly due to television trying to appeal to different types of audiences to include ethnicity, sex and age.

Interprofessional Collaboration in Health Care

Interprofessional Collaboration in Health Care Interprofessional Collaboration in Health and Social Care is changing the face of service delivery based on governments attraction to this concept. This essay is an attempt to identify and evaluate weaknesses that affect interprofessional working, using a practice based critical incident (see Appendix A). In order to achieve this, a model of critical reflection, a combination of systematic analytical tools (SWOT, PESTEL) and use of relevant theories are adopted to unearth various assumptions and their sources with a view of engaging the application of theory to practice which will consequently improve provision of services to end users in practice with the added benefit of improving interprofessional working. The various influencing factors identified from the analysis that conflate in the arena of interprofessionalism makes it a very complex, yet desirable concept to embrace and implement for the effective delivery of service within health and social care. The case for a Model of Critical reflection Reflection has been defined as a process of reviewing an experience of practice in order to describe, analyse, evaluate and so inform learning about practice Reid (1993). Researching various models of critical reflection (Gibbs reflective cycle (1988), Stephensons framework of reflection (1993), Fook and Askeland (2006) indicated a number of variables which are relevant in the evaluation and reflection on practice situation. For the purpose of this particular case study, I have chosen to reflect on the critical incident described in Appendix A by using Fooks model of critical reflection. This model; Focuses on identifying underlying assumptions with a specific purpose of fostering improvement in professional practice Fook and Askeland (2006,p), Highlights power as a critical element of transforming the revealed assumptions with a view to create a positive change in the practice situation. The concept of power in critical reflection is relevant in the social, cultural, professional and political context with the aim of gaining a sense of personal power therefore more control and choice, through the exposure of dominant assumptions in operation. Fook (2006), Foucault (1983) cited in White et al (2006, p44). Fooks model enables reflection on awareness and use of power in the course of performing my professional role. Fook also emphasises the place of emotion, communication, dialogue and learning in this model of critical reflection. This is particularly relevant to the practice situation as it led to competence queries in the light of the ensuing reverberation. This model of critical reflection is a valuable tool, enabling better decision-making, improved ability to work with uncertainty and multiple perspectives, resolve dilemmas, recognising the use and power of emotion, and better ability to learn from practice. Fook and Askeland (2006) My choice of Fooks critical reflection model helps me to take a look at what I do, why I do it, unearthing relevant hidden assumptions influenced by my cultural, social, professional and political beliefs (see PESTEL analysis in Appendix C). It also enables me to reframe myself in view of the revealed assumptions behind my thinking that affects my practice. This model seeks to empower by giving choices and creating new knowledge when the process of reflection is practised. It could also potentially reaffirm personal beliefs that may have been previously separated from professional roles which inadvertently create conflict. Interprofessional Concept Interprofessional concepts that are apparently relevant to the practice situation are collaboration and communication. The key weaknesses identified were due to lack of communication and failings in collaboration between the pharmacy, social services professions and general practitioner (GP) engaged in the care of the older people in the community. In order to analyse the practice situation, two analytical tools are adopted namely SWOT analysis considers the strengths and weaknesses in the case and also the opportunity and threats embedded in it. (Appendix B). PESTEL analysis This tool relates the situation to its external environmental factors with a view to identifying influences and impacts of the environment.( Appendix C) The two major areas of weakness focused on are: The gaps in collaboration between pharmacist, social workers and GPs in the community. Poor communication between Health and Social Care (HSC) professionals in the community. Literature Review The concept of interprofessional collaboration has been defined as working together with one or more members of the health care team where each makes a unique contribution to achieving a common goal. Each individual contributes from within the limits of his/her scope of practice. Broers et al (2009), College of Nurses Ontario (2008), Makowsky et al (2009). The Health and Social care policy on joined up working Department of Health (DoH 2000) has been regarded as a major document pointing the way to or representing one of the imperatives for the modernisation agenda. Health and Social Care policies has witnessed several changes in the last twenty five years with a shift in focus from institutional to community care with an attendant upsurge in service commissioning, which created an increasing role for primary care. Karban Smith (2006). The need for greater collaboration and communication has been highlighted by the recent increase in major enquiries into several aspects of health and social care (Victoria Climbie inquiry report by Laming (2003), Baby Ps case). Loxley (1995) asserted that the recognition of health and welfare within society as an interactive, adaptive process without an end becomes the only creative basis for strategies, policies and practices and as such, the ability to collaborate is thus an essential in this interactive process. The National Service Framework for Older people DoH (2001) clearly demands that the NHS and local authorities work in partnership to promote health ageing and prevent disease in older people. DoH (2001). Various government policies has emphasised partnership and joint working as the main focus to drive improved care to users of health and social care services. DoH (1998a) Partnership in Action (1998b); Working Together (1998c); First class service; quality in the new NHS) Leathards(2003) review on McGraths (1991) study on interprofessional teamwork in Wales found that joint working led to more efficient use of staff, efficient service provision and a more satisfying work environment. Other benefits include the value of knowledge sharing, potential for comprehensively integrated services, efficient use of public funds and the avoidance of duplication and gaps in services. The New NHS-modern and dependable: DoH (1998). The governments objective is to build a reliable health service where patients have access to high quality services based on identified need, building on integrated care between health and social care where each have equally important roles to play. The White paper (1998) sets out the framework for the partnership, with the intention to remove barriers to effective collaboration in the existing systems and provide new incentives for joint working across agencies. The role of Pharmacists in interprofessional collaboration. The pharmacy professions code of ethics is traditionally based on the medical model of health, where duty of care is to the patient and mainly prescriptive and paternalistic. Naidoo and Wills (2009). There are no strong evidences to support joint working between community pharmacy and other health and social professions despite a strong need for collaboration for the delivery of excellent patient care across the primary and secondary interface. Makowsky et al (2009) review indicates that collaborative working relationships between nurses and physicians have been the focus of several researches, but relatively little work has investigated the integration and nature of collaborative relationships pharmacists have with other health care practitioners. The review stated that most investigations into professional relationship between pharmacy and other healthcare profession has been on physicians satisfaction attitudes or perceptions towards specific aspects of pharmacy practice, pharmaci st roles, perceived barriers between physicians and community pharmacists, unmet needs in the medication use process, physician expectations of pharmacist and physicians receptiveness to clinical pharmacists. Competencies of the Future Pharmacy workforce a publication by the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain (2003/2004) highlights the need for greater levels of collaboration between pharmacists across all sectors and boundaries as the way forward for relevance within the healthcare workforce. The Pharmacy White paper (year) also emphasised the role of pharmacists in providing services in the present NHS structure and this would necessitate a greater awareness and participatory collaboration with other healthcare professionals. Barriers to Interprofessional Collaboration In spite of the laudable and apparently desirable benefits of interprofessional collaboration, in reality there are barriers that limit effectiveness of this concept between health and social care professionals as apparent in my practice situation. Historically, barriers such as professional cultures, different forms of accountabilities between health and social services, political agendas, rigid boundaries, departmental survival existed and still remain to challenge present day twenty-first century health and social care. Hardy et al (1992) cited in Leathard (2003) identified five categories of the challenges facing joint working within health and social care as; Structural issues such as service fragmentation, gaps in services. Procedural matters which hinders joint planning through different budgetary planning cycles and procedures. Financial factors such as different funding mechanisms, administrative and communication costs Status and legitimacy, for example local responsibilities are based within a democratically elected arena and in contrast, all services are commissioned and centrally run by the NHS. Professional issues which include problems associated with conflicting views and ideologies about users, professional self-interest, competition for domains, as well as differences between expertise, specialism and skills. Leathard (2003) noted more barriers such as practitioners isolated with little management support, inequalities in status and salary, differing leadership styles, lack of clarity about roles as damaging to inter professional collaboration. It has been noted that service users and carers as typified by the examples in the practice situation (see appendix A) often experience frustration and distress in trying to organise the type of care they want or support needed as a carer. This process, involving contact with different agencies and each with different assessment processes, often leave users and carers unclear as to who should be doing what and how it all links together. DoH (1998a) Joint working has been identified by the DoH (1998) as needed at three levels; strategic planning, service commissioning and service provision. In the practice of pharmacy in the care of the community, service provision must deliver an integrated package that avoids the burden of complex bureaucracy. Barriers to Joint Working: Communication Another weakness identified in the SWOT analysis, (see Appendix C) is poor communication. Information sharing in the appropriate context is important in helping to promote informed decision making and aid the provision of user-focused care. On the other hand, incorrect information can destroy or reinforce negative or destructive stereotypes and therefore limit the range of options offered to the user. Hammick et al (2009). Poor communication can be a barrier to effective information sharing in professional practice. The lack of clarity in the process of communication experience in my context can also be down lack of awareness of how the agencies work together. Meads et al (2005) states that poor systems and lack of parity between different professionals can be major risk factors, particularly with regards to effective communication. In the inquiries into the events that led to Victoria Climbies death in 2000 and the Bristol Royal Infirmary incident, systemic failures that led to poor communications were highlighted. The issue of communication was further complicated by the fact that I had no prior knowledge of any disability suffered by the patient that would necessitate any form of assessment set out by the Disability Discrimination Act (2004), I assumed that the clients GP would be aware of the process of referral for patients needing support with their medicines as they are usually their first point of call. Carers expectation was that all service providers talked to each other in a way that gets things done smoothly. Reflecting on what I have learnt on interprofessional collaboration, the situation became clearer as I realised that different organisations have different operating procedures which, despite attempts at collaboration, can still be conflicting. External influences on the practice situation such as legal factors (see Appendix C) include issues such as patient confidentiality and data protection requirements which make it imperative that proper channels of communication are followed to protect clients privacy. This raises ethical and legal questions on how much is too much or too little to exchange with other agencies. I have learnt that the failings in the practice situation described is not a clear cut failing by a single person, but a classic example of how the barriers to interprofessional working can have a direct impact on both the service user and provider. Systems Approach to Joint Working: A resolve A systemic approach to collaboration as stated by Payne(1997) in Hammick et al(2009) is relevant to interprofessional practice as it sees individuals as social beings, affected by and influencing others around them, the organisations with which they have contact and the wider society, drawing attention to relationships, structure, processes and interdependence. The whole systems concept developed by Bertanlanffy (1971) describes the exchange across permeable boundaries between systems and environments. This characteristic of the systems theory is crucial in its application to service organisations, like the NHS and social service. The key elements from the systems theory as concurred to by Loxley(1997) and Willumsen (2008)relevant to understanding collaboration in interprofessional practice is interdependence and interaction, emphasis on management of processes, the recognition of equifinality the achievement of the same goal from different starting points. Loxley (1997) asserts that it is possible to manage complexity and differences through the recognition and use of common properties which apply to both parts and to a whole when experiences are shared. For the whole systems approach to work, the right conditions as advocated by Maddock and Morgan (1999) in Leathard (2003) include; Support for communication between users and frontline staff Involvement of actively committed staff Appropriate performance measures supporting change and staff development Management and practitioners sharing the same agenda on quality and funding issues A senior management team with a unity of vision. The benefits of the whole systems approach as shown by the study on delivery of services to older people across health and social care in Brighton and Hove, Sussex Callanan (2001) include; initiatives to identify gaps in services, an improvement in the services provided in the multidisciplinary assessment and review, improved flexibility to meet users needs and the enabling of small changes which would result in significant improvements in service provision. The whole systems approach with the theorised benefits is not without its limitations. CSIP(Care Service Improvement Partnership) Older People Team cited in the whole systems approach , a document paper by the NHS Wales(2006) concluded that for most places, a whole systems approach is a statement of aspiration rather than a statement of achievement as there are limitations inherent in the approach. Conclusion The way forward may be more opportunities for joint learning among health and social care professionals in practice. Integrating joint learning in the whole systems approach to effective collaboration might in some way resolve some of the perceived barriers. Learning together reflectively will challenge traditional barriers, professional barriers and compartmentalised thinking. Karban and Smith (2006). They argued that a model of critical and reflective practice acquired through learning together will enable future practitioners develop a shared understanding of the world and ways of working together based on creating a shared dialogue within communities of practice that will enhance the experience of service users. Forming multidisciplinary teams in the care of the community for specific target population may also be effective in closing the gap in collaboration between pharmacy and other health and social care profession. In order to avoid the reoccurrence of the incident discussed in my practice situation, I will seek to implement the following Raise awareness/understanding of referral process among professionals engaged in the management of older people with disability by writing a letter to all agencies concerned. Organise seminars at local GP meetings with other healthcare professionals involved in the care of older people with the view of clarifying the referral procedures for effective provision of service

Criminal Justice Codes of Ethics Essay example -- Criminal Justice

Since the 1800’s, the main duties of a uniformed police officer revolved around carrying out patrols and investigations into crimes (CliffsNotes.com, 2011a). A usual patrol involves the officers either walking on foot or using vehicles travel around neighborhoods as a way of deterring criminal activities (CliffsNotes.com, 2011a). The investigative part of a police officer’s work usually comes in when a suspect of the case at hand has not been identified (CliffsNotes.com, 2011a). Usually, the detective has to sift through some evidence so as to identify the leads to the suspect. Finally, there are special activities that require specialized law enforcement personnel to carry out. These activities include traffic control and drug control (CliffsNotes.com, 2011a). It is clear from all this that the job of a typical police officer is hazardous. The police organization borrows much of its organizational structure from the military (CliffsNotes.com, 2011b). With its bureaucratic structure and the lines of command that pervade the organization, its culture can lead to inflexibility. It can also lead to a culture of indifference amongst the police (CliffsNotes.com, 2011b). With the tendency of the organization to ape their counterparts in the military, its workers are pre-disposed to violence. This is one example of how an organization’s culture can influence the decisions of its personnel. Furthermore, an authoritarian form of leadership also plays a great role in nurturing a domineering air in a police officer (CliffsNotes.com, 2011b). For example, the use of guns, the use of police swoops as a means of fighting crime, and the use of uniforms that closely resemble those of the military have inculcated a domineering character and, t... ... Department of Justice, 2001). Some form of witness protection should be accorded to me to protect me from retaliatory attacks. References CliffsNotes.com (2011). Police Strategies. Retrieved from http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/topicArticleId-10065,articleId-9953.html. CliffsNotes.com (2011). Police Organization. Retrieved from http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/topicArticleId-10065,articleId-9952.html Criminal Justice Code of Ethics (n.d). Retrieved from http://www.oregon.gov/DPSST/SC/docs/F-11.pdf?ga=t The Importance of Ethics in Criminal Justice. Retrieved from http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/4031_Banks_Chapter_1_Proof.pdf U.S Department of Justice (2001). â€Å"Principles for Promoting Police Integrity: Examples of Promising Police Practices and Policies†. 7-11. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojp/186189.pdf

Teaching - A Way to Make a Difference :: Education College Admissions Philosophy

Teaching - A Way to Make a Difference To me teaching is a way to make a difference in someone’s life. If it is emotional, knowledge base or physical, we as professionals should help the student be all they can be. The reason that I want to become a teacher is so that I can make a difference. I want to help students open many doors to their future. I feel that a teacher should be the person that twenty years down the road that we still inspire the student. I cannot say that I am basically just one of the philosophies. I feel that I am a mixture of many, of the philosophies. I believe in student’s freedom, using hands on approach, and focusing on what has happened in the past to cause us to study certain items. Teachers should be nontraditional, but still have traditional values. We as professionals should keep learning and to make learning exciting no matter what philosophy or theory we use. We are there to enrich the students’ life, to make learning exciting. The classroom will be set up in a way to make learning enjoyable not dreadful. I want to have centers for every type of learner that I have. The bulletin boards will informational but fun learning materials. I feel that a bulletin board should have items on it so that it catches the eyes of the student. By going into history as a professional I would like to see the students to have many different types of learning experiences. Students would do group and individual projects, so that they would learn how to work together and alone. In the classroom, I will set it up so that a student can rise to the sky like a balloon. When it comes to discipline in the class the rules and consequences will be posted and the beginning of the year. How they are set will be by asking the students what they feel the rules should be, and what should be done if they are broken. I feel that if they students feel they helped make the rules and consequences they will follow them more closely.

Hinayan and Mahayn

Introductory Comparison of Hinayana and Mahayana Alexander Berzin Berlin, Germany, January 2002 [edited transcript] The Terms Hinayana and Mahayana The terms Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle or Modest Vehicle) and Mahayana (Greater Vehicle or Vast Vehicle) originated in The Prajnaparamita Sutras (The Sutras on Far-Reaching Discriminating Awareness, The Perfection of Wisdom Sutras). They are a rather derogatory pair of words, aggrandizing Mahayana and putting down Hinayana. Alternative terms for them, however, have many other shortcomings, and so therefore I shall use these more standard terms for them here. See: The Terms Hinayana and Mahayana. ] Hinayana encompasses eighteen schools. The most important for our purposes are Sarvastivada and Theravada. Theravada is the one extant today in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Sarvastivada was widespread in Northern India when the Tibetans started to travel there and Buddhism began to be transplanted to Tibet. There were two main divisions of Sarvasti vada based on philosophical differences: Vaibhashika and Sautrantika. Hinayana tenet systems studied at the Indian monastic universities such as Nalanda, and later by the Tibetan Mahayanists, are from these two schools.The lineage of monastic vows followed in Tibet is from another Sarvastivada subdivision, Mulasarvastivada. [See: A Brief History of Buddhism in India before the Thirteenth-Century Invasions. ] Buddhas and Arhats There is quite a significant difference between the Hinayana and Mahayana presentations of arhats and Buddhas. Both agree that arhats, or liberated beings, are more limited than Buddhas, or enlightened beings, are. Mahayana formulates this difference in terms of two sets of obscurations: the emotional ones, which prevent liberation, and the cognitive ones, which prevent omniscience.Arhats are free of only the former, whereas Buddhas are free of both. This division is not found in Hinayana. It is purely a Mahayana formulation. To gain liberation or enlightenmen t, both Hinayana and Mahayana assert that one needs nonconceptual cognition of the lack of an impossible â€Å"soul. † Such a lack is often called â€Å" selflessness,† anatma in Sanskrit, the main Indian scriptural language of Sarvastivada and Mahayana; anatta in Pali, the scriptural language of Theravada.The Hinayana schools assert this lack of an impossible â€Å"soul† with respect only to persons, not all phenomena. Persons lack a â€Å"soul,† an atman, that is unaffected by anything, partless, and separable from a body and a mind, and which can be cognized on its own. Such a â€Å"soul† is impossible. With just the understanding that there is no such thing as this type of â€Å"soul† with respect to persons, one can become either an arhat or a Buddha. The difference depends on how much positive force or so-called â€Å" merit† one builds up.Because of their development of the enlightening aim of bodhichitta, Buddhas have built up far more positive force than arhats have. Mahayana asserts that Buddhas understand the lack of an impossible â€Å"soul† with respect to all phenomena as well as with respect to persons. They call this lack â€Å"voidness. † The various Indian schools of Mahayana differ regarding whether or not arhats also understand the voidness of phenomena. Within Mahayana, Prasangika Madhyamaka asserts that they do. However, the four Tibetan traditions explain this point differently regarding the Prasangika assertion.Some say that the voidness of phenomena understood by arhats is different from that understood by Buddhas; some assert the two voidnesses are the same. Some say that the scope of phenomena to which the voidness of phenomena applies is more limited for arhats than it is for Buddhas; some assert it is the same. There is no need to go into all the details here. [See: Comparison of the Hinayana and Mahayana Assertions of the Understandings of Voidness by Arhats and Buddha s. ] Further Points Concerning Buddhas and ArhatsThe assertions of Hinayana and Mahayana concerning arhats and Buddhas differ in many other ways. Theravada, for instance, asserts that one of the differences between a shravaka or â€Å"listener† striving toward the liberation of an arhat and a bodhisattva striving toward the enlightenment of a Buddha is that shravakas study with Buddhist teachers, while bodhisattvas do not. The historical Buddha, Shakyamuni, for instance, did not study with another Buddha. He studied only with non-Buddhist teachers, whose methods he ultimately rejected. In the fact that Buddha’s understanding and attainment id not arise from reliance on a Buddhist teacher, Theravada asserts that a Buddha’s wisdom surpasses that of an arhat. In addition, bodhisattvas work to become universal Buddhist teachers; shravakas do not, although as arhats they certainly teach disciples. Before passing away, Buddha himself deputed his arhat disciple Sharipu tra to continue â€Å"turning the wheel of Dharma. † According to Theravada, however, Buddhas excel arhats in being more skillful in methods for leading others to liberation and in the breadth of their conduct of teaching.This is the meaning of a Buddha’s being omniscient. However, according to this presentation, a Buddha would not know everyone’s address and would have to ask such information from others. According to the Vaibhashika school of Hinayana, Buddhas are actually omniscient in knowing such information, but they only know one thing at a time. According to Mahayana, omniscience means knowing everything simultaneously. This follows from its view that everything is interconnected and interdependent; we cannot speak of just one piece of information, totally unrelated to the rest.Hinayana says that the historical Buddha achieved enlightenment in his lifetime and, like an arhat, when he died, his mental continuum came to an end. Therefore, according to Hina yana, Buddhas teach only for the rest of the lifetime in which they achieve enlightenment. They do not emanate to countless world systems and go on teaching forever, as Mahayana asserts. Only Mahayana asserts that the historical Buddha became enlightened in a previous lifetime many eons ago, by studying with Buddhist teachers. He was just demonstrated enlightenment under the bodhi tree as one of the twelve enlightening deeds of a Buddha.The precursor of this description of a Buddha is found in the Mahasanghika School of Hinayana, another of the eighteen Hinayana schools, but is not found in either Sarvastivada or Theravada. [See: The Twelve Enlightening Deeds of a Buddha. ] Concerning Buddhas, another major difference is that only Mahayana asserts the three corpuses or bodies of a Buddha – Nirmanakaya, Sambhogakaya, and Dharmakaya. Hinayana does not assert them. Thus, the concept of a Buddha is significantly different in Hinayana and Mahayana. [See: Identifying the Objects of Safe Direction (Refuge). The Pathway Minds Leading to Liberation and Enlightenment Hinayana and Mahayana both assert that the stages of progress to the purified state, or â€Å"bodhi,† of either an arhat or a Buddha entail developing five levels of pathway mind – the so-called â€Å"five paths. † These are a building-up pathway mind or path of accumulation, an applying pathway mind or path of preparation, a seeing pathway mind or path of seeing, an accustoming pathway mind or path of meditation, and a path needing no further training or path of no more learning.Shravakas and bodhisattvas who attain a seeing pathway of mind both become aryas, highly realized beings. Both have nonconceptual cognition of the sixteen aspects of the four noble truths. [See: The Five Pathway Minds: Basic Presentation. See also: The Sixteen Aspects and the Sixteen Distorted Ways of Embracing the Four Noble Truths. ] Both Hinayana and Mahayana agree that a seeing pathway mind rids both arya shravakas and arya bodhisattvas of doctrinally based disturbing emotions, while an accustoming pathway mind rids them of automatically arising disturbing emotions.The former are based on learning the set of assertions of one of the non-Buddhist Indian schools, while the latter arise automatically in everyone, including animals. The list of disturbing emotions that shravaka and bodhisattva aryas rid themselves of is part of a larger list of mental factors. Each of the Hinayana schools has its own list of mental factors, while Mahayana asserts yet another list. Many of the mental factors are defined differently in each list. Both Hinayana and Mahayana agree that the course of progressing through the five pathway minds entails practicing the thirty-seven factors leading to a purified state.A â€Å"purified state† or â€Å" bodhi† refers to either arhatship or Buddhahood. These thirty-seven factors include the four close placements of mindfulness, the eight branches of an arya pathway mind (the eightfold noble path), and so on. They are very important. In anuttarayoga tantra, the thrity-seven are represented by Yamantaka’s thirty-four arms plus his body, speech and mind, as well as by the dakinis in the body mandala of Vajrayogini. The thirty-seven are a standard set of practices. The specifics of each practice, however, are often different in Hinayana and Mahayana. See: The Theravada Practice of the Four Close Placements of Mindfulness. See also: The Four Close Placements of Mindfulness According to Mahayana. ] Both Hinayana and Mahayana assert that the scheme of stream-enterer, once-returner, non-returner and arhat refers to stages of an arya shravaka’s path, but not to the path of an arya bodhisattva. Thus, stream-enterers have nonconceptual cognition of the sixteen aspects of the four noble truths, which include nonconceptual cognition of the lack of an impossible â€Å"soul† of persons.We should not think that stream-e nterer is a beginner level. So if someone claims to have achieved the state of a stream-enterer, be suspicious. Hinayana does not provide an extensive explanation of the bodhisattva pathway minds. Mahayana, however, explains that an arya bodhisattva’s path to enlightenment entails progressing through the development of ten levels of bhumi-mind. These levels of mind do not pertain to the path of shravakas. Both Hinayana and Mahayana agree that traversing the bodhisattva path to enlightenment takes more time than traversing the shravaka one to arhatship.Only Mahayana, however, speaks of building up the two enlightenment-building networks – the two collections – for three zillion eons. â€Å" Zillion,† usually translated as â€Å"countless,† means a finite number, though we would be unable to count it. Shravakas, on the other hand, can attain arhatship in as short as three lifetimes. In the first lifetime, one becomes a stream-enterer, in the next lif etime a once-returner, and in the third lifetime, one becomes a non-returner, achieves liberation, and becomes an arhat. This is quite tempting for many people.The assertion that arhats are selfish is like bodhisattva propaganda. It is basically meant to point out an extreme to avoid. The sutras record that Buddha asked his sixty arhat disciples to teach. If they were truly selfish, they would not have agreed to do so. Arhats, however, can only help others to a more limited extent than Buddhas can. Both, however, can only help those with the karma to be helped by them. Bodhisattvas It is important to realize that the Hinayana schools do assert that before becoming a Buddha, one follows the bodhisattva path.Both Hinayana and Mahayana have versions of the Jataka tales describing the previous lives of Buddha Shakyamuni as a bodhisattva. Starting with King Siri Sanghabodhi in the third century CE, many Sri Lankan kings even called themselves bodhisattvas. Of course, this is a little tri cky to untangle because there was some Mahayana present in Sri Lanka at the time. Whether this idea of bodhisattva kings preexisted a Mahayana influence is hard to say, but it did happen. Even more surprisingly, in the fifth century CE, the elders at theSri Lankan capital Anuradhapura declared Buddhaghosa, a great Theravada Abhidharma master, to be an incarnation of the bodhisattva Maitreya. Mahayana asserts that there are a thousand Buddhas in this â€Å"fortunate eon† who will start universal religions, and there have been and will be many more Buddhas in other world ages. Mahayana also asserts that everyone can become a Buddha, because everyone has the Buddha-nature factors that enable this attainment. Hinayana does not discuss Buddha-nature. Nevertheless, Theravada does mention hundreds of Buddhas of the past.One Theravada sutta even lists twenty-seven by name. All of them were bodhisattvas before becoming Buddhas. Theravada asserts that there will be innumerable Buddhas in the future as well, including Maitreya as the next one, and that anyone can become a Buddha if they practice the ten far-reaching attitudes. The Ten Far-Reaching Attitudes Mahayana says that the ten far-reaching attitudes are practiced only by bodhisattvas and not by shravakas. This is because Mahayana defines a far-reaching attitude or â€Å"perfection† as one that is held by the force of a bodhichitta aim.According to Theravada, however, so long as the ten attitudes are held by the force of renunciation, the determination to be free, bodhichitta is not necessary for their practice to be far-reaching and act as a cause for liberation. Thus, Theravada asserts that both bodhisattvas and shravakas practice ten far-reaching attitudes. Aside from the different motivating aims behind them, the other main difference between a bodhisattva’s and a shravaka’s practice of the ten is the degree of their intensity.Thus, each of the ten far-reaching attitudes has three st ages or degrees: ordinary, medium, and highest. For example, the highest practice of generosity would be giving one’s body to feed a hungry tigress, as Buddha did in a previous life as a bodhisattva. The list of the ten far-reaching attitudes also differs slightly in Theravada and Mahayana. The Mahayana list is: * generosity * ethical self-discipline * patience * joyful perseverance * mental stability * discriminating awareness * skill in means

Germany in Ww Essay

History Department Year 10 World War 1 – World War 2 Written Research Assignment The weaknesses of Germany’s opponents were equally responsible for Hitler’s military successes as his Blitzkrieg tactics between 1939-1941. The Blitzkrieg tactics were very effective during the Second World War but this was also partly due to the fact that the Allied generals and tacticians were so incompetent. The fact that Blitzkrieg and the incompetency of opposition generals were equally responsible for Hitler’s military successes is best shown in his campaigns in Poland, France and Russia. In these conflicts the largest deciding factors were the Blitzkrieg tactics and the incompetency of the opposition generals. Blitzkrieg won the day in all of these conflicts but, as was shown in the later years of the war, once the Allies had competent generals the Blitzkrieg tactics were defeated. One of Hitler’s largest military successes between 1939 and 1941 was the campaign in Poland. The Campaign in Poland was an immensely easy victory for the Germany War machine. The Polish Army was large and well trained, but it was immensely outdated. They still had a large amount of cavalry regiments in there army which were completely destroyed by German tanks. They had very few tanks of their own and those that they did have were nothing compared to the strength of the German Panzers. They had quite a large well trained infantry but many of them still used swords and their guns were completely outclassed by the German assault rifles. They also had a small and rather average air force but this was made obsolete by the larger and better German air force. Also Poland is a flat country and it had few natural obstacles making it ‘ideal tank country’ [ (Crisp, 1990) ]and therefore the perfect target for Blitzkrieg. As well as the actual Polish army, the tactics and generals of the Polish were also very outdated. When the time came for battle The Polish Generals arranged their army into the Standard and age old line formation. When the Armies met the Blitzkrieg tactics worked perfectly due to this arrangement and the Polish were defeated with ease. As shown here the Blitzkrieg tactics and fail Polish generals result were equally responsible for Germany’s success. As Peter Crisp said in his book, Blitzkrieg, ‘Geographically and strategically, Poland was the perfect target for a Blitzkrieg attack. ’ [ (Crisp, 1990) ] The Blitzkrieg tactics were responsible for the actual win but if Poland had had more competent generals they had made better defences for the Blitzkrieg style of attack and had ditched the cavalry and upgraded and enlarged their tank and air forces they would have been able to repel the Germans and their Blitzkrieg. That is why the Blitzkrieg tactics and weak opponents were equally responsible for Hitler’s military success. Another of Hitler’s early military success was his campaign in France, also known as operation Sicklecut. This is due to the way the main force was supposed to punch through a hole in French defences and cut around like the cut of a sickle to attack the French forces from the rear. The main French forces were supposed to be distracted be a diversionary German force. This plan worked perfectly and the main German for Force smashed into the rear of the French force where together they pushed the French and supporting British armies into the coast in a thorough defeat. The Germans then pushed through to Paris where after a mass evacuation of the crumbling French forces Germany took control of Paris. This is a great example of the fact that Hitler’s military success was due equally due to the Blitzkrieg tactics as the incompetency of his opposition. In the campaign in France the Blitzkrieg tactics were very effective, not just beating the French army but spreading panic throughout the country and forcing the chain of command to crumble, but it could have and would have been defeated if it wasn’t for the useless generals of the French army. The Panic caused by the Blitzkrieg tactics was a very effective weapon for the Germans, one unknown French soldier even recounted in his diaries that his saw own comrades running ‘with their hands over their heads not bothering to even return fire’ [ (Trueman, 2000) ]. The French had the capabilities to defeat the Germans and their Blitzkrieg tactics but they stuffed it up. Most of the Generals were veterans of the First World War and they were using the same tactics as they did then. Towards the end of his life Marshal Petain, the commander-in-chief of the French armies, said ‘After the war of 1914-1919, it was finished for me. My military mind was closed. When I saw the introduction of other tools and other methods I must say they didn’t interest me,’ [ (Crisp, 1990) ] showing exactly the attitude of the French military leadership at the start of the War. This allowed the Germans to defeat them with ease. They believed that the Germans would use the same plan that they used in the First World War and easily were defeated by the superior tactics of the Germans and when the Germans continued their advance through France and were bearing upon Paris in a matter of the days the French Leadership started to breakdown. If the French generals had been more competent they could have used their own tanks and air force more effectively and then the Germans would have been defeated and the French would have been successful. The Campaign in Russia, also known as Operation Barbarossa, named after the twelfth century Prussian King who was prophesied to rise from his grave and restore Germany to world power, is another great example of the fact that Hitler’s military successes were equally due to his Blitzkrieg tactics and the ineptitude of his opposition. The Campaign in Russia started out as what seemed to be a complete annihilation. ’ When Operation Barbarossa opened, on 22 June 1941, the Soviets were taken completely by surprise. ’ [ (Crisp, 1990) ] The German army was rapidly advancing and defeating the Red Army with ease. The Red Army had huge numbers of men and many tanks and aircraft but most of these tanks were obsolete and the Air force was built mainly for tactical air support, not for air superiority. The main problem for the Red Army was the leader of Russia, Josef Stalin. After Stalin and his brutal Communist regime’s murder of all of the senior officers for political reasons and the strict constrictions placed on the remaining young and inexperienced officers which meant there was no room innovation during the heat of battle leaving the Red Army incredibly handicapped. At the beginning of operation Barbarossa ‘Stalin refused to believe the invasion was really happening. He thought the attack was a provocation by a German commander acting independently of Hitler, and ordered his frontline soldiers not to fire back’ [ (Crisp, 1990) ]. The fact that Hitler’s military success required both a weakness of Hitler’s opposition and the Blitzkrieg tactics is best shown in the next part of the campaign in Russia. Once Stalin finally allowed his officers some flexibility and the winter allowed them to build many more of their new T-34 model tanks the Russians started to come back. After a period of intense fighting, particularly around Stalingrad, the Germans were defeated and forced to retreat and as General Mellenthin of the Germans wrote ‘with the failure of our supreme effort, the strategic initiative passed to the Russians. ’ [ (Crisp, 1990) ] This shows how necessary the weakness of Hitler’s enemies for his military success due to the fact that the second one of his enemies obtained good weapons, like the T-34, and successful leaders the Germans Blitzkrieg tactics were neutralised and they were defeated. The Blitzkrieg tactics and the weakness of Hitler’s opposition were equally responsible for Hitler’s military success between 1939 and 1941 during the Second World War. Without the Blitzkrieg tactics the German Army simply would not have been able to defeat the Allied forces and without weaknesses of Germany’s opposition the Blitzkrieg tactics would have been defeated by the superior enemy forces. The areas of the war which best show this are the campaigns in Poland, France and Russia. In all of these operations Blitzkrieg and inferior opposition played a major part. This is why the Blitzkrieg tactics and weak opposition were equally responsible for Hitler’s Military success. Bibliography Crisp, P. (1990). Blitzkrieg. Wayland publishing. A very good source. Lots of good information and quotes on all necessary areas. Deighton, L. (1979). Blitzkrieg. Pluriform Publishing. An alright source. Some good info but no quotes Trueman, C. (2000). Blitzkrieg. Retrieved May 2010, from History Learning Site: http://www. historylearningsite. co. uk/blitzkrieg. htm A good source. Not a lot of information but some good quotes Unknown Author/Date. Barbarossa. Retrieved May 2010, from World War 2 Database: http://worldwar2database. com/html/barbarossa. htm A good source. Not many quotes but a good source of info Unknown Author/Date. France. Retrieved May 2010, from World War 2 Database: http://worldwar2database. com/html/france_40. htm A good source. Not many quotes but a good source of info Unknown Author/Date. Blitzkrieg. Retrieved May 2010, from World War 2 Database: http://www. 2worldwar2. com/blitzkrieg. htm A alright source. Not many quotes and an alright source of info W

Freud’s theory of Psychosexual Development Essay

I will begin my essay by outlining Freud’s theory of Psychosexual Development and I will then go on to evaluate how far this help us to understand a client’s presenting issue. Freud’s theory of psychosexual development begins with the belief that human beings are purely driven by biology, in the form of the libido or sexual energy. The driving force of the libido is divided into five stages, he argues, and our early experiences during childhood are responsible for the development of a healthy personality, or if any individual were to experience trauma during these stages then it would result in disruption in the child’s personal development and the child may become stuck in this stage, resulting in neurosis. This five stages of sexual libido are: The Oral Stage – from birth to about 18 months – is where the child directs all its attention to the mouth in the form of sucking, eating and drinking. If stuck in this stage the client may still like to use their mouth a lot, resulting in the client presenting with overeating, drinking, smoking or talking The Anal Stage – from about 18 months to three years – is where the child directs their attention to the elimination of waste, and of the feelings experienced by the expelling of waste. This is also the stage where the child first experiences an element of control over themselves, as to where they excrete or and indeed whether or not they excrete their waste product. The child learns that he can use his bodily functions to elicit attention from his carer by excreting on the floor rather than in the potty. Clients stuck in the anal stage may be either anally retentive or expulsive in personality. Those that are anally retentive individuals are controlling and like to have everything in order – they may suffer from OCD and have quick outbursts of anger. Anally expulsive individuals tend to be untidy and disorganised. The Phallic Stage – from about three to five years – is where children become aware of their genital regions. This is the stage where the child starts to become aware of the differences between male and female genitalia, and their energy is spent undressing themselves, and perhaps others, in order to explore these differences. It is also the stage  of manipulating the genitals and the discovery of pleasure in doing so. It is during this stage that the Oedipus conflict arises; the belief that a boy has incestuous cravings for his mother and views his father as a rival for this affection. The boy also fears his father, as his father is bigger than him in all ways including his penis. Freud argued that the boy feels castration anxiety at this stage as a result of repressed sexual desire for his mother. If the boy has the correct parenting at this stage, then the boy identifies with the father and comes to have harmless affection for the mother. The Electra complex is the female counterpart. It is based on the view that each girl wants to possess her father and replace her mother. A phallic fixation can lead to an individual with a narcissistic, homosexual, egotistical or overly sexualised personality that may lead to serial marriage, polygamy or polyandry. The phallic fixation tends to use sex to discharge emotional tension and will often have sexual relationships that are superficial and lacking in love and affection The Latency Stage – from five years to adolescence. In this stage, sexual motivated needs subside as the child focuses their attention on developing other skills needed for their survival. A child stuck in this stage may have issues forming sexual relationships and have trouble expressing themselves sexually, leaving themselves and or their partners sexually unfulfilled. The Genital Stage – from adolescence to adulthood. During the onset of adolescence, the child moves from self-love or narcissistic love to diverting this love to others. It is argued by psychotherapists that are advocates of this theory that individuals disrupted during the ‘Genital stage’ may result in sexual disorders such as fetishes and paedophilia. According to Freud, only symptoms can be modified, and not the behaviour of the client – this can be done in two ways: 1. Lessening of the intensity of the unconscious urges, by bringing them to the consciousness or by strengthening the defences against them. An example of lessening the client’s behaviour is by encouraging a client to leave a job where aggressive urges were continually being aroused by an oppressive boss. 2. Alternatively the client can act out their urges in a more acceptable and symbolic way. An example being that anal urges can be expressed through pottery, as an alternative to faecal play. Feminists would argue that Freud’s theory concentrates on male sexual development, and provides little in understanding female sexuality. Freud’s work has also  been criticised for over emphasising sex drive and little else in order to assess a client’s presenting issue. Carl Jung and Fromm, two students of Freud, agreed with this statement, but used Freud’s work to develop their own theories, which I outline below. Carl Jung (1875 -1961) believed that that the libido was not just sexual energy, but instead generalised psychic energy. The purpose of this psychic energy was to motivate the individ ual in a number of ways, including spiritually, intellectually, and creatively. It was an individual’s source for seeking pleasure as well as reducing conflict. Jung placed greater emphasis on the unconscious than Freud; he argued that the psyche was composed of three components. Firstly, he believed that the ego is conscious, because people are aware of their own thoughts, memories and emotions. The unconscious mind, Jung believed, was split into two parts (the remaining two components): The personal unconscious, which is the same as Freud’s belief, in that it consists of repressed memories. Jung explained an important feature of the personal unconscious called ‘complexes’. A complex is a collection of thoughts, feelings, attitudes and memories, which focus on a single concept. The more elements attached to the ‘complex’ the greater its influence on the individual. The second deeper level is the Collective consciousness. This level of unconscious is shared with other members of the human species, comprising of latent memories from our ancestral and evolutionary past (‘The form of the world into which a person is born is already inborn in him, as a virtual image’ Jung, 1953). Jung called the ancestral memories and images ‘archetypes’. For Jung, our primitive past becomes the basis of the human psyche, directing and influencing present behaviour. Important archetypes include: the persona, or our social mask, just like an actor in a play; Anima/Animus, or our male and female sides – this comes from living side by side with the opposite sex for centuries; the shadow, similar to Freud’s ID, comprised of our animal urges or survival and reproduction. Jung argued that the psychological development of both sexes was undermined as the development of western society has led to the devaluation of feminine qualities over the predominance of the persona, leading to insecurity. Jung agreed with Freud that a person’s past and childhood experiences determined future behaviour, but he also believed that we are shaped by our future aspirations too. Erich Fromm (1900 – 1980) differed with the Freudian  emphasis on unconscious drives. Fromm argues that a person’s drives were not purely biological – he believed that man had free choice to decide on whatever action he felt appropriate and therefore gui ded their own destiny. Fromm saw conflict arising within the individual, when they had to weigh up the freedom of choice with the fear of uncertainty, when making these decisions. As a sociologist and psychologist, his theories integrated both psychology and Marxist Historical Materialism. Fromm argued that each socioeconomic class fosters a particular character, governed by ideas and concepts that justify and maintain the socioeconomic system. Fromm believed that the unique character of human existence gives rises to eight basic needs. Firstly Unity, as human beings have lost their original oneness with nature, they need to relate in order to overcome their isolation. Secondly their relatedness with others, care, respect and knowledge. Thirdly humans need to transcend their own nature, as well as their passivity and randomness of existence, which can be accomplished either positively, by loving and creating, or negatively, through hatred and destruction. Fourthly the individual also requires a sense of rootedness or belonging, in order to gain a feeling of security, and sense of identity. Fifthly the sense of identity which is expressed non-productively as conformity to a group and productively as an individual. Sixthly is need is for orientation understanding the wor ld and our place in it. Seventhly is excitation and stimulation or actively striving for a goal rather than simply responding. Eighthly is effectiveness the need to feel accomplished. This Orientation can be achieved either through assimilation (relating to things) or socialisation (relating to people). Fromm identified several character Orientations in Western Society. Authoritarianism – when an individual cannot come to terms with this freedom, he could avoid his responsibilities by withdrawing beneath the protection of someone or something else. Examples of this include God, a specific political leader of party, an institution of even one’s carer. Receptive Orientation – this is common in a society which encourages exploitation of the individual, who then seeks solace in affection and related comforts, such as eating, where the individual can only take and not give. Exploitative Orientation – the defence being the aggressive possession of goods, usually those of others. Examples being the plundering of goods in historical times, or in more modern times, those  nations that seek the territories and chattels of others. Productive Orientation – which donates love and tolerance towards others, and an acceptance of their freedom, with the ability to use this orientation to their advantage, without harming others. Hoarding Orientation – the ‘I want – I need’ society, based on material wealth. If one owns objects, then the individual can be seen, at least in his eyes, as clever and powerful. These individuals are threatened by the outside world and cannot share. Marketing Orientation – this is people copying or being influenced by the media and advertising by wearing the latest fashions. Individual personal qualities are redundant over what looks good. The individual sees themselves as a commodity to be bought and sold. Fromm added two further states: Necrophilous character- attracted to death Biophilous character – drawn to life. According to Fromm, gaining independence from one’s parents leads to a profound sense of loneliness and isolation, which the individual attempts to escape by establishing some type of bond with society through social conformity and submission to authority. By relating both Jung and Fromm’s work to our clients, they have made us aware of the client’s wider world or heritage into which he or she is born. Jung would argue that a Muslim woman may have low self-esteem and isolate herself from others, but these presenting issues are more down to the client’s collective consciousness than their childhood. In this case, Jung helps us as therapist to understand that the client’s neurosis may not arise from bad parenting, but from something primal based upon evolution within the individual. Fromm’s Socio- economic theories also provide us with insight of the client’s wider world, and how neurosis can arise due to external economic forces that dr ive the client’s neurosis in an exploitative and materialistic society that values things over the human existence. Both would argue that it is our environment rather than biology that constrains us, in the form of society and culture. For Jung and Fromm, in order to understand the client’s presenting issue, we must also understand their culture and the way in which they relate to the economic society into which they are born. An alternative view to Freud’s psychosexual development is that of the Behaviourist approach. Behaviourists believe that what is learned can be unlearned. Skinner built upon the work  of Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiments (1927) and his use of dogs as subjects, and the Little Albert experiments of Watson and Rayner (1920). To further these experiments, Skinner (1938) designed a Puzzle box and, by using rats, he showed that by using both positive and negative reinforcements, he could change the behaviour of the rats, as their behaviour is affected by consequences. He called this Operant Conditioning to which he identified three responses: Neutral Operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behaviour repeated. Reinforces: responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behaviour being repeated – this can be ether positive or negative Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the probability of a behaviour being repeated. Punishment weakens behaviour. Skinner concluded that there was a Law of Effect, and that by using reinforcement, behaviour tends to be repeated, while behaviour which is not reinforced tends to die out. As human beings, we often respond to verbal Operants by taking advice, listening to the warnings of others and by obeying given rules and laws. This helps us understand the development of children, as the feelings associated with behaviour are controlled by conditioning. If the child has been positively rewarded, then the child is more likely to repeat those behaviours happily and willingly, feeling that they are doing what they want to be doing. If on the other hand the child avoids these behaviours due to negative reinforcement, they will be inclined to feel that their freedoms are being repressed, resulting in feelings of negativity, which could led to depression or anxiety. The work of Skinner, Pavlov, Watson and Rayner has led to the development of different treatments, such as C ognitive behavioural therapy and talking therapy that will help you manage your problems by changing the way you think and behave, commonly used to treat anxiety, depression and phobias but can be useful for other mental and physical health problems. In conclusion, Freud’s work on psychosexual development does help us in part to understand a client’s presenting issue, by understanding that their behaviour may very well stem from how their parents handled the child’s psychosexual development. By accepting this assertion, it also helps us to understand that what we, as society, view as very disturbing or deviant behaviour can arise from childhood trauma. This allows the therapist, and society, to be more  compassionate to such clients. An example of this is that Freud stated that homosexuality is neither a sinful nor a criminal act, but rather a condition that arose from childhood biological and psychological factors, and was just a ‘variation of the sexual function’, and because of this is could not be treated by punishment or therapy, but should just be accepted. Freud’s work, as already discussed, is limited in understanding the client’s total world, however we must understand th at Freud’s work was the first of its kind in understanding human psychological development, and was written at a time when most adults probably were sexually repressed, as well as viewing homosexuality as sinful. The later work of others, including Jung and Fromm, built upon his work, to help us understand the client’s presenting issue in a wider context. They widened our worldly view of the client by demonstrating how neurosis of the individual may also arise due to internal factors of the collective consciousness, arising from cultural and social heritage, or by external factors, such as how the client relates to the economic environment into which they are born. The work of the behaviourists also helps us to understand that any negative social conditioning also plays its part in understanding the client’s presenting issue. As a final note, we must remember that it is the job of the therapist to use the work of others as a tool to understanding the client’s own world in order to get enough understanding of the client’s perspective in relation to their own presenting issue. This understanding helps facilitate the client in coming to their own conclusions as to how best to tackle their own presenting issue, either by managing their condition from the Freudian perspective, or helping them change their own perspective and/or behaviour, as argued by the behaviourists. Bibliography What Freud Really Said – David Stafford-Clark (1996) 1935 – Freud’s letter response to a mother asking him to treat her homosexual son. (1935) Handbook of Individual Therapy – Edited by Windy Dryden (1990) Counselling for Toads – Robert De Board (1998) McLeod, S.A (2008)